Electron beam lithography

To obtain resolutions better than the few μm of photolithography it is necessary to use either X-ray lithography or electron beam lithography. Here we give a brief overview of the latter technique. After development of the resist one can choose to etch the exposed part of the wafer. Acid will typically not etch the polymer photoresist but only the substrate, so etching will carve out the design defined by the mask. The shape of the etching depends on the acid and the substrate. It can be isotropic and have the same etch rate in all spatial directions, or it can by anisotropic with a very large etch rate in some specific directions. One can choose the etching process that is most suitable for the design. Metal deposition followed by lift-off is another core technique. Here a thin layer of metal (less than 500 nm) is deposited by evaporation technique on the substrate after de veloping the resist. At the exposed places the metal is deposited directly on the substrate, and elsewhere the metal is residing on top of the remaining photoresist. After the metal deposition the substrate is rinsed in a chemical that dissolves the photoresist and there by lift-off the metal residing on it. As a result a thin layer of metal is left on the surface of the wafer in the pattern defined by the photography mask. The above mentioned process steps can be repeated many times with different masks

and very complicated devices may be fabricated that way.

Electron beam lithography is based on a electron beam microscope, in which a focused beam of fast electrons are directed towards a resist-covered substrate. No mask is involved since the position of the electron beam can be controlled directly from a computer through electromagnetic lenses and deflectors. The electrons are produced with an electron gun, either by thermal emission from hot tungsten filament or by cold field emission. The emitted electrons are then accelerated by electrodes with a potential U ≈ 10 kV and the beam is focused by magnetic lenses and steered by electromagnetic deflectors. the electron is both a particle and a wave. The wavelength λ of an electron is given in terms by the momentum p of the electron and Planck’s constant h by the de Broglie relation Eq. λ = h/p. In the electron beam microscope the electron acquires a kinetic energy given by the acceleration voltage U as 1/2mv² = eU, where m and −e is the mass and charge of the electron, respectively. Since p = mv the expression for the wavelength λ becomes

λ = h/ √2meU

which for a standard potential of 10 kV yields λ = 0.012 nm .However, the resolution of an electron beam microscope is not given by λ. First of all, one can not focus the electron beam on such a small length scale. A typical beam spot size is around 0.1 nm. But more importantly are the scattering processes of the electrons inside the resist and the substrate. As illustrated by the computer simulation the backscattering of the electrons implies that an area much broader area is exposed to electrons than the area of the incoming electrons. This results in an increase of the resolution. It turns out that in practice it is difficult to get below a minimum linewidth of 10 nm. Electron beam lithography is still the technique with the best resolution for lithography. A major drawback of the method is the long expose time required to cover an entire wafer with patterns. The exposure time texp is inversely proportional to the current I in the electron beam and proportional to the clearing dose D (required charge per area) and the exposed area A,

texp = DA I I

In photolithography the entire wafer is exposed in one flash, like parallel processing, whereas in electron beam lithography it is necessary to write one pattern after the other in serial processing. For mass production electron beam lithography is therefore mainly used to fabricate masks for photolithography .

Photolithography

Almost all top-down manufacturing involves one or more photolithography fabricationsteps, so we give a brief outline of this technique here. From a lightsource light is directed through a mask carrying the circuit design down onto the substrate wafer covered with a photo-sensitive film, denoted the photoresist. Depending on the local photo-exposure defined by the photolithographic mask the photoresist can be partly removed by a chemical developer leaving well-defined parts of the substrate wafer exposed to etching or metal deposition. The substrate wafer is typically a very pure silicon disk with a thickness around 500 μm and diameter of 100 mm (for historic reasons denoted a 4 inch wafer). Wafers of different purities are purchased at various manufacturers. The photolithographic mask contains (part of) the design of the microsystem that is to be fabricated. This design is created using computer-aided design (CAD) software. Once completed the computer file containing the design is sent to a company producing the mask. At the company the design is transferred to a glass plate covered with a thin but non-transparent layer of chromium. The transfer process is normally based on either the relatively cheap and fast laser writing with a resolution of approximately 1.5 μm and a delivery time of around two weeks, or the expensive and rather slow electron beam writing with a resolution of 0.2 μm and a delivery time of several months. The photo exposure is typically performed using the 356 nm UV line from a mercury lamp, but to achieve the line widths of sub 100 nm mentioned in Sec. 1.1 an extreme UV source or even an X-ray source is needed. To achieve the best resolution must minimize note only the wavelength λ of the exposure light, but also the distance d between the photolithographic mask and the photoresist-covered substrate wafer, and the thickness t of the photoresist layer. The minimum line width wmin is given by the approximate expression

wmin = 3 /2 ( λ(d + t). ) ^½

If d = 0 nm the mask is touching the photo-resist. This situation, denoted contact printing,improves the resolution but wears down the mask. If d > 0 nm, a case denoted proximity printing, the resolution is pourer but the mask may last longer. It is difficult to obtain wmin < 2 μm using standard UV photolithography. The photoresist is a typically a melted and thus fluid polymer that is put on the substrate wafer, which then is rotated at more than 1000 rounds per minute to ensure an even and thin layer of resist spreading on the wafer. The photoresists carry exotic names like SU-8, PMMA, AZ4562 and Kodak 747. The solubility of the resists is proportional to the square of the molecular weight of the polymer. The photo-processes in a polymer photoresist will either cut the polymer chains in small pieces (chain scission) and thus lower the molecular weight, or they will induces cross-linking between the polymer chains and thus increase the molecular weight. The first type of resists is denoted the positive tone photoresists, they will be removed where they have been exposed to light. The second type is denoted the negative tone photoresists, they will remain where they have been exposed to light.

Clean room facilities

The small geometrical features on a microchip necessitates the use of clean room facilities during the critical fabrication steps. Each cubic meter of air in ordinary laboratories may contain more than 107 particles with diameters larger than 500 nm. To avoid a huge flux of these ”large” particles down on the chips containing micro and nanostructures, micro and nanofabrication laboratories are placed in so-called clean rooms equipped with high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filtering system. Such systems can retain nearly all particles with diameters down to 300 nm. Clean rooms are classified according to the maximum number of particles per cubic foot larger than 500 nm. Usually a class-1000 or class-100 clean room is sufficient for microfabrication.The low particle concentration is ensured by keeping the air pressure inside the clean room slightly higher than the surroundings, and by combining the HEPA filter systemwith a laminar air flow system in the critical areas of the clean room. The latter system let the clean air enter from the perforated ceiling in a laminar flow and leave through the perforated floor. Moreover, all personnel in the clean room must be wearing a special suit covering the whole body to minimize the surprisingly huge emission of small particles from each person. The air flow inside the DANCHIP clean room is about 1.3x 10⁵ m³ h⁻¹, most of which is recirculated particle-free air from the clean room itself. However, since the exhaust air from equipment and fume hoods is not recirculated, there is in intake of fresh air of 0.3 x10⁵ m³ h⁻¹.

MICROFABRICATION AND MOORE’S LAW

Microfabrication and Moore’s law

The top-down approach to microelectronics seems to be governed by exponential time dependence. I 1965, when the most advanced integrated circuit contained only 64 transistors, Gordon E. Moore, Director of Fairchild Semiconductor Division, was the first to note this exponential behavior in his famous paper Cramming more components onto integrated circuits [Electronics, 38, No. 8, April 19 (1965)]: ”When unit cost is falling as the number of components per circuit rises, by 1975 economics may dictate squeezing as many as 65,000 components on a single silicon chip”. He observed a doubling of the number of transistors per circuit every year, a law that has become known as Moore’s law. Today there exist many other versions of Moore’s law. It concerns the exponential decrease in the length of the gate electrode in standard CMOS transistors, and relates to the previous quoted values of 90 nm in 2003 and 65 nm in 2005. Naturally, there will be physical limitations to the exponential behavior expressed in Moore’s law, see Exercise 1.1. However, also economic barriers play a major if not the decisive role in ending Moore’s law developments. The price for constructing microprocessor fabrication units also rises exponentially for each generation of microchips.

Moore’s law in the form of the original graph from 1965 suggesting a doubling of the number of components per microchip each year. (b) For the past 30 years Moore’s law has been obeyed by the number of transistors in Intel processors and DRAM chips, however only with a doubling time of 18 months. A result extremely powerful computers and efficient communication systems have emerged with a subsequent profound change in the daily lives of all of us. A modern computer chip contains more than 10 million transistors, and the smallest wire width are incredibly small, now entering the sub 100 nm range. Just as the American microprocessor manufacturer, Intel, at the end of 2003 shipped its first high-volume 90 nm line width production to the market, the company announced that it expects to ramp its new 65 nm process in 2005 in the production of static RAM chips.1 Nanotechnology with active components is now part of ordinary consumer products. Conventional microtechnology is a top-down technology. This means that the microstructures are fabricated by manipulating a large piece of material, typically a silicon crystal, using processes like lithography, etching, and metallization. However, such an approach is not the only possibility. There is another remarkable consequence of the development of micro and nanotechnology.

Since the mid-1980’ies a number of very advanced instruments for observation and manipulation of individual atoms and molecules have been invented. Most notable are the atomic force microscope (AFM) and the scanning tunnel microscope (STM) that will be treated later in the lecture notes. These instruments have had en enormous impact on fundamental science as the key elements in numerous discoveries. The instrumentshave also boosted a new approach to technology denoted bottom-up, where instead of making small structure out over large structures, the small structures are made directly by assembling of molecules and atoms.

Top-down micro and nanotechnology

Top-down micro and nanotechnology

Nanotechnology deals with natural and artificial structures on the nanometer scale, i.e.

in the range from 1 μm down to 10 ˚A. One nanometer, 1 nm = 10⁻⁹ m, is roughly the

distance from one end to the other of a line of five neighboring atoms in an ordinary solid. The nanometer scale can also be illustrated as in Fig. 1.1: if the size of a soccer ball (similar to 30 cm = 3 x 10⁻¹ m) is reduced 10.000 times we reach the width of a thin human hair (similar to 30 μm = 3x10⁻⁵ m). If we reduce the size of the hair with the same factor, we reach the width of a carbon nanotube (similar to 3 nm=3 x10⁻⁹ m).

It is quite remarkable, and very exciting indeed, that we today have a technology that

involves manipulation of the ultimate building blocks of ordinary matter: single atoms

and molecules. Nanotechnology owes it existence to the astonishing development within the field of micro electronics. Since the invention of the integrated circuit nearly half a century ago in 1958, there has been an exponential growth in the number of transistors per micro chip and an associated decrease in the smallest width of the wires in the electronic circuits.

EXQUISITE DESIGN

Mechanical engineering concepts also come into play in designing magnetic data storage, which currently requires heads to fly over a disk with spacing of about 10 nm. Maintaining such flying heights without crashing calls for exquisite design and manufacturing of disks and heads, and fundamental understanding of dynamics, non-continuum fluid mechanics, and surface forces. This has always been part of mechanical engineering and is expected to remain so even as the scales involved shrink.

One of the biggest challenges in magnetic recording is the so-called superparamagnetic limit, which occurs when the volume of a magnetic domain is sufficiently small that thermal fluctuations randomize its polarization. This can be overcome by patterning the magnetic medium. How does one manufacture highly regular magnetic bits with sizes in the range of 20 to 100 nm over a disk surface with diameter of about 3 to 10 cm? The ultimate solution to this problem will be derived from mechanical engineering.
But with all the ways in which mechanical engineering will be crucial to unlocking the potential of nanotechnology, there are challenges as well. University engineering departments must change the way mechanical engineers are educated.

Although some universities claim to have modernized their curricula, a deeper look would suggest that in most cases courses of study reflect the technological needs of the Sputnik era or perhaps an earlier time. Mechanical engineering programs need to ensure that their students are given a solid grounding in the fundamentals of physics, chemistry, and biology.

Approaches must be developed that cultivate a different way of thinking, so that students can develop intuition for phenomena occurring at the nanoscale, as well as gain an understanding for connections that bridge the nanoscale, the mesoscale, and the macroscale.

A gene gun developed at the University of Minnesota sprays a mist of DNA-bearing particles into cells. Similar devices could be used one day to spread manufactured nanoscale objects across relatively broad surfaces.

For this to happen, nanoscience and engineering concepts will need to be integrated into existing undergraduate curricula. Topics such as solid state physics, chemical thermodynamics, surface forces at the atomic and molecular scale, nanofluidics, and motion and behavior of nanoscale structures—most of which receive little if any attention in the traditional undergraduate ME curriculum—will need to be integrated into core courses such as thermodynamics, heat transfer, fluids, statics and dynamics, and manufacturing.

Textbooks need to be written or revised to incorporate this type of material with the core mechanical engineering subjects. Requiring professors of mechanical engineering to take graduate-level refresher courses on these topics is not inconceivable.

Taken together, these changes will represent a new paradigm for the education of mechanical engineers, one that, if done right, will increase disciplinary depth. At the same time, at both the undergraduate and graduate levels, students should be exposed to courses that bring in concepts from multiple disciplines, and faculty and programs must find ways to reduce the barriers to interdisciplinary dialog.

What's more, there should be a strong ethical component to this new teaching paradigm. Like any other technology, nanotechnology can have many unintended consequences that are harmful to our society and to the environment. It can also be used in counterproductive ways that could pose risks to the society.

There are many questions that we engineers must openly discuss: How could nanostructures or manufacturing of nanostructures be harmful to human health? Are there any environmental effects? Could nanotechnology reveal information that infringes on privacy? If improved health diagnostics and therapeutics facilitated by nanotechnology increase lifespan, what effect would the result have on demographics and productivity? Would this technology be accessible to the whole population, or be available to only a certain segment of our society?

It is incumbent upon us engineers to pay close attention to these societal and ethical issues related to nanotechnology. We also need to educate ourselves, the public, and the media about what is realistic and what is not, and in what time frame we could expect nanotechnology to affect our lives. It is our responsibility to do so.

Last year's workshop confirmed the emerging consensus within the mechanical engineering community that nanotechnology will have a profound impact on society and on industry, and that MEs can play a crucial role. Some major recommendations include:

• Sustained support from the National Science Foundation and other funding agencies to maintain long-term, fundamental research in nanoscale science and engineering;

• A focus on research in nanoscale science and engineering that addresses the grand challenges that affect society and humanity;

• Development of education programs that incorporate the essence of nanoscale science and engineering into undergraduate and graduate mechanical engineering curricula;

• Collaboration across disciplines by both NSF and university departments to expose graduate and undergraduate students to interdisciplinary research; and

• Research that seeks integration across scales to exploit nanoscale effects at the micro- and macroscales.

POWER PIPS

The ability to convert energy between different forms—and the capacity to use it—is the hallmark of modern civilization. Humanity will face a crisis in the coming decades due to the rate at which fossil fuels are being used and the impact this is having on the environment. Nanotechnology almost certainly has a role in resolving this crisis, and mechanical engineers are perfectly situated to capitalize on the opportunity.

It is widely recognized that renewable sources of energy such as solar electricity and biomass will gain importance in the future. However, cost is a hurdle to the effectiveness of such technologies. For example, the cost of photovoltaics must be an order of magnitude lower than its current value to make the technology competitive with fossil fuels. This could be possible if, for example, silicon-based devices, which are currently manufactured in high-temperature processes, were replaced by nanostructured plastic-based photovoltaics.

If thermoelectric devices made of materials such as silicon and germanium perform about 10 to 20 percent of the Carnot limit, they could be as competitive as cost-effective solid-state energy conversion devices. This can only occur if the semiconductors are nanostructured to control heat and charge transport. Mechanical engineers who understand these challenges better than other technologists, will almost certainly devise the solution.

The particles making up a silicon carbide film at top average only 20 nm across. A polymer material (second from top) is made of nanoscale layers. Each "carrot" made by Georgia Tech researchers (third from top) contains thousands of silica wires grown from a gallium droplet. Another group grows nanowires by depositing metals on a porous alumina membrane (bottom).

One of the biggest environmental challenges that humanity faces today is clean water. Nanostructured filters used for ion exchange hold promise for removing contaminants. Their manufacture however, must be inexpensive, and the science of nanofluidics must be understood to make these filters effective for cleaning water. Mechanical engineers can collaborate with biologists and public health researchers to resolve both these issues.

Another area of expertise for mechanical engineers, instrumentation, is also key to tapping the potential of nanotechnology. Instruments that can probe the environment with increased resolution and sensitivity lead to breakthroughs in science and engineering. The scanning probe microscopes invented in the 1980s are electromechanical devices, which require precision actuation with Angstrom resolution, microfabrication of cantilever probes, force sensing with resolution measured in piconewtons, and a fundamental understanding of dynamics and control to increase imaging speed and spatial resolution.

These stringent requirements are not limited to the microscopes, but apply to any nanoscale measurement. For example, there is a tremendous need for instrumentation in high-throughput imaging and measurement in nanomanu-facturing processes to enable automation and process control. These issues offer opportunities for mechanical engineers to provide a system-level understanding of such instruments.

Other potential applications require a mix of skills. Nanoparticles and nanowires exist on a scale similar to biomolecules such as DNA and proteins. This suggests that the biological sciences can provide crucial insights to the behavior of such material and that nanoscale devices may be used for medical applications. For instance, nanoparticles may be used as markers to study very small samples of DNA or proteins. Achieved in a high-throughput manner, this could form the basis for biomolecular analysis in extremely small volumes (on the order of single cells), which has major implications for diagnosis of disease.

In addition, the combination of nanostructures and mechanical sensors such as cantilever beams could be used in chemical or biological defense. Nanostructures such as particles and polymeric dendrimers could be designed as drug delivery systems.

Biomolecules could be used to perform non-biological tasks. Possibilities include manufacturing, energy conversion, signal amplification, and information processing. Many of these functions are already achieved in an extremely efficient manner within a cell, thanks to the genius of natural selection, but to exploit them in non-biological conditions is a nontrivial problem.

Nevertheless, applications such as manufacturing and energy conversion have always been strengths of mechanical engineers. Can we harness the power of the biomolecular machinery for mechanical applications? Research in this direction has already started.

Another field where nanotechnology may need mechanical engineers is information processing and storage. When transistors reach the scales of 20 to 30 nano-meters (a scale that will be necessary to keep up with Moore's law) quantum effects such as electron tunneling will lead to electron leakage, and this will cost power. Higher speeds will also require electromagnetic isolation, which will necessitate the use of materials that have extremely low thermal conductivities. In addition, novel cooling technologies that directly interface with electronic and optoelectronic chips must be developed.

To create chip designs that solve these thermal problems, technologists will need a basic understanding of how heat flows in nanostructures and across interfaces. Mechanical engineers have just this sort of expertise.

Nanotechnology and Daily Life

In general we are not aware of issues that confront us about science, technology and others super complicated specialized fields. The finished product is normally the result of perhaps many years of study, field-laboratory observation and research. Gadgets we religiously use such as digital music players, cameras, mobile phones have not just materialized.

In the case of the Nanotechnology there is a small but powerful empire of scientist focused on the study of a world microscopically dimensioned. Nanotechnology is a multi-disciplinary field of technology and applied science that is solving problems through the knowledge and application of one or more natural scientific fields.

The scale which embraces the Nanotechnology field is the realm of nanostructures and atoms. There are currently some discussions between scientists and experts about the real measurable range or scale of the Nanotechnology. Of what we are completely sure is we can not see it with our human eye but when we talk about nanostructures we commonly refer to a range between is 1 to 100 nanometers.

How can we really appreciate and understand that? Surely we need be more aware about the units of measures involved. For example: a centimeter corresponds to 100 of a meter, a millimeter corresponds to 1000 of a meter and a micrometer corresponds to 1 million of a meter. All of these measures are visibly-huge-enormous compared to the 'nano-scale'. According to the reputable Berkley Lab, a nanometer (nm) is one-billion of a meter. Of course that is completely invisible, smaller than the wavelength of the visible light a 100.000 the width of the human hair.

If we compare the nano-scale (that is the scale used for the nanostructures) and the atomic scales, we have that an atom has a diameter near to 0.1 nm and the nucleus of an atom is evidently so much smaller about 0.00001 nm. All matter in the universe and all is around us is made up of atoms. All inside and outside us is matter and our human bodies are formed from millions of living cells. Though the living cells work like natural nano-machines and in the atomic scale the elements are in a very basic level but in the nano-scale we can join these atoms and make almost everything.

With all this information now we are more conscious about the subject. For some scientist, the Nano-science is a very new science but for others it is just an extension of sciences that currently exists into the nano-scale or just a newer-modern-used-term.

How can Nanotechnology help us in our daily life? For the commoner, the fields of science seem sometimes so theoretical, but there are many applications today that are linked to Nanotechnology. Scientist using nanostructures can reproduce things like gem stones, food and much more by self-replication nano-robots.

A very important field for this new science is health. Nanorobots or Nanomachines which are devices ranging in size from 0.1 to 10 micrometers can be used in medical technology to detect, analyze and identify through nano-sensors cancer cells to then destroy them. They can also help to identify an early diagnosis for cancer. Nanotechnology in the environment can be used to detect and measure the concentration of toxic elements more efficiently.

There are a wide range of applications and uses for Nanotechnology. In the case of food it is used to develop packaging more safely through a nanocomposite which can increase or decrease gas permeability, heat resistance. In the household for example, nanotechnology applications are already responsible for developing devices for self-cleaning windows, dishes, ceramics etc.

Many people experience eye irritation caused by the ultraviolet rays. Thanks to Nanotechnology, advances have been made to produce the first anti-reflective ultrathin polymer sunglasses. In optical surgery, nano-optics increase the precision of pupil repair and other type of surgery using laser technology.

Unquestionably we are now receiving the benefits of the Nanotechnology in many ways. We can improve our knowledge of nanotechnology according to our self interest. In our daily life there are many things we cannot see and touch which are incredibly powerful and extremely significant for the modern world we live today. Nanotechnology is clearly going to play a major role in the future development of many disciplines

Nanotechnology is an umbrella term that covers many areas of research dealing with objects that are measured in nanometers. A nanometer (nm) is a billionth of a meter, or a millionth of a millimeter.

In the early 20th century, Henry Ford built a car manufacturing plant on a 2,000-acre tract of land along the Rouge River in Michigan. Built to mass-produce automobiles more efficiently, the Rouge housed the equipment for developing each phase of a car, including blast furnaces, a steel mill and a glass plant. More than 90 miles of railroad track and conveyor belts kept Ford's car assembly line running. The Rouge model was lauded as the most efficient method of production at a time when bigger meant better.

The size of Ford's assembly plant would look strange to those born and raised in the 21st century. In the next 50 years, machines will get increasingly smaller--so small that thousands of these tiny machines would fit into the period at the end of this sentence. Within a few decades, we will use these nanomachines to manufacture consumer goods at the molecular level, piecing together one atom or molecule at a time to make baseballs, telephones and cars. This is the goal of nanotechnology. And as televisions, airplanes and computers revolutionized the world in the last century, scientists claim that nanotechnology will have an even more profound effect on the next century.

Building with Atoms

Atoms are the building blocks for all matter in our universe. You and everything around you are made of atoms. Nature has perfected the science of manufacturing matter molecularly. For instance, our bodies are assembled in a specific manner from millions of living cells. Cells are nature’s nanomachines. Humans still have a lot to learn about the idea of constructing materials on such a small scale. Consumer goods that we buy are made by pushing piles of atoms together in a bulky, imprecise manner. Imagine if we could manipulate each individual atom of an object. That's the basic idea of nanotechnology, and many scientists believe that we are only a few decades away from achieving it.

Nanotechnology is a hybrid science combining engineering and chemistry. Atoms and molecules stick together because they have complementary shapes that lock together, or charges that attract. Just like with magnets, a positively charged atom will stick to a negatively charged atom. As millions of these atoms are pieced together by nanomachines, a specific product will begin to take shape. The goal of nanotechnology is to manipulate atoms individually and place them in a pattern to produce a desired structure. There are three steps to achieving nanotechnology -produced goods:

• Scientists must be able to manipulate individual atoms. This means that they will have to develop a technique to grab single atoms and move them to desired positions. In 1990, IBM researchers showed that it is possible to manipulate single atoms. They positioned 35 xenon atoms on the surface of a nickel crystal, using an atomic force microscopy instrument. These positioned atoms spelled out the letters "IBM." You can view this nano-logo.
• The next step will be to develop nanoscopic machines, called assemblers , that can be programmed to manipulate atoms and molecules at will. It would take thousands of years for a single assembler to produce any kind of material one atom at a time. So, trillions of assemblers will be needed to develop products in a viable time frame.
• In order to create enough assemblers to build consumer goods, some nanomachines, called replicators, will be programmed to build more assemblers . Trillions of assemblers and replicators will fill an area smaller than a cubic millimeter, and still will be too small for us to see with the naked eye. Assemblers and replicators will work together like hands to automatically construct products, and will eventually replace all traditional labor methods. This will vastly decrease manufacturing costs, thereby making consumer goods plentiful, cheaper and stronger. In the next section you'll find out how nanotechnology will impact every facet of society, from medicine to computers .

A New Industrial Revolution

In January 2000, U.S. President Bill Clinton requested a $227-million increase in the government’s investment in nanotechnology research and development, which includes a major new initiative called the National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI). This initiative nearly doubles America's 2000-budget investment in nanotechnology, bringing the total invested in nanotechnology to $497 million for the 2001 national budget. In a written statement, White House officials said that "nanotechnology is the new frontier and its potential impact is compelling."

About 70 percent of the new nanotechnology funding will go to university research efforts, which will help meet the demand for workers with nanoscale science and engineering skills. The initiative will also fund the projects of several governmental agencies, including the National Science Foundation, the Department of Defense, the Department of Energy, the National Institutes of Health, NASA and the National Institute of Standards and Technology. Much of the research will take more than 20 years to complete, but the process itself could touch off a new industrial revolution. Nanotechnology is likely to change the way almost everything, including medicine, computers and cars, are designed and constructed. Nanotechnology is anywhere from five to 15 years in the future; and we won't see dramatic changes in our world right away. But let's take a look at the potential effects of nanotechnology:

• The first products made from nanomachines will be stronger fibers. Eventually, we will be able to replicate anything, including diamonds, water and food. Famine could be eradicated by machine s that fabricates foods to feed the hungry.
• In the computer industry, the ability to shrink the size of transistors on silicon microprocessors will soon reach its limits. Nanotechnology will be needed to create a new generation of computer components. Molecular computers could contain storage devices capable of storing trillions of bytes of information in a structure the size of a sugar cube.
• Nanotechnology may have its biggest impact on the medical industry. Patients will drink fluids containing nanorobots prigrammed to attack and reconstruct the molecular structure of cancer cells and viruses to make them harmless. There's even speculation that nanorobots could slow or reverse the aging process, and life expectancy could increase significantly. Nanorobots could also be programmed to perform delicate surgeries--such nanosurgeons could work at a level a thousand times more precise than the sharpest scalpel. By working on such a small scale, a nanorobot could operate without leaving the scars that conventional surgery does. Additionally, nanorobots could change your physical appearance. They could be programmed to perform cosmetic surgery, rearranging your atoms to change your ears, nose, eye color or any other physical feature you wish to alter.
• Nanotechnology has the potential to have a positive effect on the environment. For instance, airborne nanorobots could be programmed to rebuild the thinning ozone layer. Contaminants could be automatically removed from water sources and oil spills could be cleaned up instantly. And manufacturing materials using the bottom-up method of nanotechnology also creates less pollution than conventional manufacturing processes. Our dependence on non-renewable resources would diminish with nanotechnology. Many resources could be constructed by nanomachines. Cutting down trees, mining coal or drilling for oil may no longer be necessary. Resources could simply be constructed by nanomachines.
• The promises of nanotechnology sound great, don't they? Maybe even unbelievable? But researchers say that we will achieve these capabilities within the next century. And if nanotechnology is, in fact, achieved, it might be the human race’s greatest scientific achievement yet, completely changing every aspect of the way we live.

Nanotechnology rust-proofing - without chromium

For a long time, chromium plating protected car bodies against rust – but this has been prohibited since 2007. However, chromium-free coatings are not suitable for universal use; they have to be adapted to the respective application. A new chromium-free coating can help. Years ago, the ice-cream van used to drive through residential areas, ringing a bell to entice people out of their houses. Today their place has been taken by scrap metal collectors. Whether it be refrigerators, washing machines or car parts – the dwindling natural resources mean that scrap metal is worth money. To ensure that the recycling of old cars, for example, does not pose a risk to human health and the environment, the European Parliament has issued a guideline: The use of toxic and carcinogenic chromium(VI) compounds in car manufacturing has been prohibited since mid-2007. Until then, a chromate layer underneath the paint protected the car body against corrosion. Since that time, several chromium(VI)-free protective coatings have made their way into industrial halls – but they do not afford the same degree of protection as chromium(VI) plating, and cannot be used on all types of metal surface. Researchers at the Fraunhofer Institutes for Silicate Research ISC in Würzburg and for Machine Tools and Forming Technology IWU in Chemnitz, along with colleagues at the Institute for Corrosion Protection Dresden GmbH, have developed an alternative – based on nanocomposites. “The new nanomaterials we developed using the sol-gel method adhere very well to most types of galvanization that we examined,” reports ISC project manager Dr. Johanna Kron. To produce them, the researchers dipped galvanized steel sheets into a coating sol and applied a powder coating. They subjected the coated sheets to a variety of load tests. One such test was to keep scratched steel sheets in a chamber filled with atomized brine for 360 hours, or 15 days, at a temperature of 35 degrees. They also placed the metal sheets in an environment chamber with a relative humidity of 100 percent for 240 hours, or 10 days. “These coatings protect most galvanized materials almost as well as commercial yellow chrome plating. Indeed, the new coatings are often even more effective than the chromium-free system and chromium(III) passivation currently on the market,” says Kron. Good anti-corrosion measures are one thing, but is it also possible to deep-draw and bend the metal sheets treated in this way without destroying the coating? “As the coatings are less than a thousandth of a millimeter thick, you can form the chromium-free coated metal sheets in exactly the same way as yellow chrome plated sheets,” says Kron. The researchers can already produce the corrosion proofing on a laboratory scale. Kron believes that the system could be launched on the market in about five years’ time.

Future Cars

Intelligent Vehicles

Fuel efficient, zero emission vehicles will use high tech electronics to assist drivers in a wide variety of ways. Vehicles will communicate with each other, with the road and with traffic signals. Autos and trucks of the future will use vision enhancement devices to help you navigate through bad weather and warn you of a possible collision with a pedestrian or animal. They will also let you know if you are getting drowsy or straying from your lane. Cars of the future will be radically different than the automobiles of today, and so will the driving experience.

Accident Free Driving

Obstacle detection, collision avoidance and intersection warning systems are being tested right now by governments and automobile manufacturers. Radio signals, sensors and cameras, future vehicles will help avoid accidents by examining the environment in real time and notifying the driver of potential problems.

Pedestrian and animal warning systems could use infrared or other detection technologies to identify large animals approaching the roadway, and alert drivers by activating flashers on warning signs. These systems may also activate in-vehicle warning devices.

Autos That Talk and Listen

While you are driving, your vehicles will communicate with the cars and trucks around you. Your future car will notify you when trucks are merging into your lane or motorcycles are in your blind spot. Smart intersections will sense vehicles from all directions and alert you of a possible collision.

Vision Enhancement

In vehicle Vision Enhancement Systems will improve visibility for night driving, inadequate lighting, fog, drifting snow, or other inclement weather driving conditions

User Interface

Cars of the future will do a better job of keeping your hands on the wheel and your eyes on the road. Voice recognition will provide a hands free way of accessing your on board computer and navigation system. But your on board computer may do more than talk back.

Haptic interfaces are human/computer interfaces. Haptics exploits human behavior, since people are more likely to pay attention to tactile cues than visual cues. With haptic interfaces, a computer could receive or convey information through touch, pressure, force or vibration. For example, sensors embedded in the exterior of a car could feel if it's veering too close to another vehicle. That message could be relayed to the driver's seat, which could alert the driver to the danger with a tap on the shoulder.

Nanotechnology Drives Fuel Efficient Engine Oil

A high-tech lubricant hailed the ‘holy grail of vehicle oil’ has been launched at an industry event at the National Exhibition Centre, Birmingham.

The London firm behind the venture – NanoBoron UK – says the oil has been scientifically proven to improve fuel consumption more than 10 per cent, reduce engine wear and corrosion and help the environment.

The firm’s technical manager Dr Mounir Adjrad said: “BORPower is an oil additive scientifically proven in Europe, the US and now the UK to improve consumption.

“Launched at the Bus Expo show at the NEC after UK trials by vehicle engineering test specialists at the Motor Industry Research Association (MIRA) research facility it produced fuel consumption savings of over 10 per cent.

“In other words the cost of a litre of diesel for BORPower users would be reduced from £1.14 to £1.03 or the trip from London to Edinburgh will be reduced from 330 to 297 miles.

“In the average year, a fleet of ten 18-tonne vehicles developing 230 hp operating at 50,000 miles each could save £20,538 based on a 12.6 mpg per vehicle. From owner-operators to fleet managers, achieving reduction of costs especially with the current volatile fuel prices, is a major headache and many will have heard of so-called ‘additives.’ However, BORPower is different.”

Dr Adjrad said the oil was the only product “with publicly declared tests and certificates from around the world, performed by independent organisations showing a reduction in fuel consumption based scientific formula, approved by vehicle bodies and governments.”

He said: “It is based on a physical process, not involving any chemical reaction with the engine oil, making BORPower non-toxic, non-acidic, and environmentally-friendly. Other products last from 1,000 to 25,000 miles whereas BORPower lasts up to 40,000 miles.

“The quality and effectiveness of BORPower has been validated several times by accredited industrial and scientific research and testing facilities in the USA and Europe and the UK.

“Each facility, including Southwest Research Institute San Antonio Texas, USA and TÜV NORD Germany (Technical Inspection Agency), Hanover, found BORPower improved fuel efficiency up to 15 per cent.”

He said BORPower was the combination of the use of the chemical element Boron and nanotechnology.

“Nanotechnology is the relatively unknown but growing field dealing with the tiny world of atoms and molecules. One nanometer (nm) is one billionth, or 10-9 of a metre. The comparative size of a nanometer to a metre is the same as that of a marble to the size of the earth. Checking over the periodic table Boron has the symbol B, atomic number 5, has a small density, and is very heat resistant. The raw boron goes through the nanotechnology process and becomes boron diamond powder, frequently called the ‘brother of diamond’ due to its hardness of 9.3 Mohs, just below the diamond (10 Mohs) the hardest substance known to man.”

He said BORPower worked by building boron metal films in the engine’s inner parts which prevents direct contact between the frictional surfaces responsible for abrasion, friction and heat.

“BORPower helps by cooling down these frictional surfaces and sealing them.” Announcing the launch of BORPower in the UK, NanoBoron UK Director Ismail Cikci said: “In today’s volatile financial markets businesses need to save every penny. After comprehensive trials across the globe we are the only company to publicly declare independent test results which confirm BORPower works to save money.”

'Formula Zero' kart race could drive fuel cell technology

The world's first international fuel-cell-powered go-kart race took place in Rotterdam, the Netherlands, on Saturday. Six teams participated in the “Formula Zero” event, which is aiming to be a zero-emissions alternative to today's high-performance “Formula 1” car races.

The six teams used go-karts powered by fuel cells, which electrochemically combine hydrogen with atmospheric oxygen to produce electrical power and an exhaust of pure water, producing zero carbon-dioxide emissions.

But instead of the fuel cells charging a battery, as called for in designs for fuel-cell-powered road cars, the cells charged supercapacitors. These devices, which store energy in the electric field between two conducting plates, discharge more quickly than batteries, giving the karts more kick.

The race had two components – an endurance event and a sprint. For the endurance event, karts had to complete six laps of a 533-metre-long track in the fastest time possible. For the sprint, karts were timed as they completed one lap after a flying start, where they started accelerating before the beginning of the lap.

A team called EuplatecH2 from Zaragoza, Spain, won the sprint, finishing one lap in just over 36 seconds, sustaining an average speed of 53 kilometres per hour.

Engine / Gearbox

The engine and transmission of a modern Formula One car are some of the most highly stressed pieces of machinery on the planet, and the competition to have the most power on the grid is still intense.

Traditionally, the development of racing engines has always held to the dictum of the great automotive engineer Ferdinand Porsche that the perfect race car crosses the finish line in first place and then falls to pieces. Although this is no longer strictly true - regulations now require engines to last more than one race weekend - designing modern Formula One engines remains a balancing act between the power that can be extracted and the need for just enough durability.

Engine power outputs in Formula One racing are also a fascinating insight into how far the sport has moved on. In the 1950s Formula One cars were managing specific power outputs of around 100 bhp / litre (about what a modern 'performance' road car can manage now). That figure rose steadily until the arrival of the 'turbo age' of 1.5 litre turbo engines, some of which were producing anything up to 750 bhp / litre. Then, once the sport returned to normal aspiration in 1989 that figure fell back, before steadily rising again. The 'power battle' of the last few years saw outputs creep back towards the 1000 bhp barrier, some teams producing more than 300 bhp / litre in 2005, the final year of 3 litre V10 engines. Since 2006, the regulations have required the use of 2.4 litre V8 engines, with power outputs falling around 20 percent.

Revving to 19,000 RPM, a modern Formula One engine will consume a phenomenal 650 litres of air every second, with race fuel consumption typically around the 75 l/100 km (4 mpg) mark. Revving at such massive speeds equates to an accelerative force on the pistons of nearly 9000 times gravity. Unsurprisingly, engine-related failures remain one of the most common causes of retirements in races.

Modern Formula One engines owe little except their fundamental design of cylinders, pistons and valves to road-car engines. The engine is a stressed component within the car, bolting to the carbon fibre 'tub' and having the transmission and rear suspension bolted to it in turn. Therefore it has to be enormously strong. A conflicting demand is that it should be light, compact and with its mass in as low a position as possible, to help reduce the car's centre of gravity and to enable the height of rear bodywork to be minimised.

The gearboxes of modern Formula One cars are now highly automated with drivers selecting gears via paddles fitted behind the steering wheel. The 'sequential' gearboxes used are very similar in principle to those of motorbikes, allowing gear changes to be made far faster than with the traditional ‘H’ gate selector, with the gearbox selectors operated electrically. Despite such high levels of technology, fully automatic transmission systems, and gearbox-related wizardry such as launch control, are illegal - a measure designed to keep costs down and place more emphasis on driver skill. Transmissions - most teams run seven-speed units - bolt directly to the back of the engine.

Mindful of the massive cost of these ultra high-tech powertrains, the FIA introduced new regulations in 2005 limiting each car to one engine per two Grand Prix weekends, with ten-place grid penalties for those breaking the rule. From 2008, a similar policy was applied to gearboxes, each having to last four race weekends. On top of these measures, a freeze on engine development imposed at the end of the 2006 season means teams are unable to alter the fundamentals of their engines’ design until at least 2010.

A recent report in the American journal Science says that advances in nanotechnology could lead to its introduction in Formula One in the near future.

Nanotechnology is the science of engineering materials with the properties of strength, lightness and electrical conductivity at the molecular, or nanometer, scale. According to Science the technology could be used to create artificial muscles, superstrong electric cars and wallpaper-thin electronics..

Scientists from the University of Texas and Australia's Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization have reported the creation of industry-ready sheets of materials made from nanotubes -tiny carbon tubes with remarkable strength that are only a few times wider than atoms – that can also act as the semiconductors found in modern electronics.

The new material is self-supporting, transparent and stronger than steel or high-strength plastics, the sheets are flexible and can be heated to emit light. In laboratory tests, the sheets demonstrated solar cell capabilities, using sunlight to produce electricity.

One future application that scientists have discussed is the creation of racecars with stronger, lighter bodies that could also serve as batteries. Andrew Barron, a chemist at of Rice University in Houston. TX said, "We could see this on Formula 1 (racing) cars by next season. This is a jumping-off point for a technology a lot of people will pursue."

Nanotechnology and Manufacturing

Four years ago, words like "impossible," "futuristic," and "science fiction" filled discussions about nanotechnology. Since the announcement of the US National Nanotechnology Initiative in 2000, though, worldwide investment in nano research and development has raced forward, with $8 billion invested in 2004 alone. That kind of growth has leaders at major companies sitting up and taking notice of a technology that can help them develop enviable market positions.

The US National Science Foundation forecasts that nanotechnology could become a trillion dollar per year business by 2015, with advanced materials alone making up $340 billion of that figure. And there is no doubt that nanotechnology will soon change the way we manufacture. We hope you'll want to reap the benefits. Numerous industries-including automotive, aerospace/defense, cosmetics, clothing, computers, sporting goods, and pharmaceutical-are already using the technology to improve their products.

Nanotechnology is defined as the ability to control matter at the atomic or molecular scale of one to 100 nanometers. A nanometer is one billionth of a meter, about the size of a large molecule. To provide you with some perspective, a virus is about 100 nanometers long and a bacterium is ten times bigger; a human cell about ten times larger than that. Advanced nanomanufacturing requires precise control of materials and structures from the nanoscale all the way up to the macroscopic scale.

Nanoscale materials can exhibit superior and even unexpected properties. Partially a result of the atomic perfection possible at small scales, and partially due to nanoscale quantum effects, nanomaterials can be far stronger than their bulk constituents. Natural nanostructured materials like wood and seashells are thousands of times tougher than their raw materials. They go far beyond the chemistry of simple self-assembly, and are actively constructed out of molecular building blocks by the biological machines in the cells. For that reason, synthetic nanostructured materials should perform even better. Steel is one example of an early manmade nanocomposite material with better performance than its primary components of iron, carbon, and manganese.

Soon we'll be engineering far better materials.

Nanotechnology's champion material so far is the carbon nanotube. Discovered in 1991, these little tubes of carbon measure about one nanometer in diameter. They can be 100 times stronger than steel, can conduct heat better than any other material, and can be excellent electrical conductors, or semiconductors even better than silicon. Sensors made with nanotubes can be thousands of times more sensitive than bulk-scale sensors, and researchers are designing multifunctional materials that combine the properties of strength, sensing, and actuation.

Some companies are already moving nanomaterials into real products. Samsung is producing prototype computer displays using nanotubes as electron emitters. Eikos uses thin films of nanotubes to create an electrically conducting, but transparent, coating on glass to replace the industry-standard ITO film. You may have already hit a Wilson tennis ball containing nanocomposite clay for more bounce and a longer life, ridden an Easton bicycle made tougher and lighter by nanotubes, used a Kodak digital camera featuring a brighter, more powerefficient display built from carbon-based molecules, or worn stain and wrinkle-resistant Eddie Bauer khaki "nanopants" to work.

Even simple nanomaterials such as bulk nanopowders are finding markets. Nanoscale titanium dioxide decomposes most organic material when ultraviolet light falls on it. Several firms use this to create selfcleaning paint and glass products. Nanoscale aluminum oxide coatings on eyeglasses make their surfaces as hard as sapphire without affecting transparency.

These examples of "bottom-up" nanotechnology rely on molecular interactions to self-assemble structures at larger scales. As simple applications of advanced materials, they are just the beginning.

Developing "top-down" systems that build smaller and smaller systems, down to the molecular scale, will eventually enable us to use software to precisely control the positioning of chemical building blocks. Massively parallel nanomanufacturing systems will allow us to engineer and build extremely complex and highly functional materials, and devices, with atomic precision.

New materials and new ways of putting them together will be nanotechnology's next big success stories.

While today, we cast, grind, mill, etch, and cut to move large chunks of atoms at once, nanomanufacturing will ultimately enable us to:

* Build products with essentially every atom in its designed location,

* Make almost any stable structure consistent with the laws of physics,

* Do this at a manufacturing cost near that of the required raw materials and energy.

There is no doubt that whatever you are manufacturing now will be touched by nanotechnology in the next five years. Making things better, faster, and cheaper is industry's constant goal, and nanotechnology can help manufacturers surpass competitors who aren't paying attention.

Nanotechnology Unfolds Futuristic Green Cars

In the process of constant advancement in auto technology, car makers are pondering on manufacturing environment-friendly vehicles utilizing nanotechnology. Two of the much-anticipated future vehicles of this concept are Acura FCX 2020 Le Mans and Volkswagen Nanospyder.

Automakers are constantly incorporating the most advanced technology in their lineup. This time around they are planning to use nanotechnology to come up with spectacular vehicles. Two of the most sought-after vehicles are Acura FCX 2020 Le Mans and Volkswagen Nanospyder.

Recently, automakers have unleashed their environment-friendly concept cars that are expected to be manufactured using nanotechnology. The latter is a technology of building tiny machines using functional systems at a molecular scale. According to experts, nanotechnology, in its original sense, means projected ability to assemble items from the bottom up, utilizing techniques and tools being developed these days to make complete, high performance products.

Nanotechnology works from the bottom to the inside of the machine called personal nanofactories (PNs). Using mechanochemistry, nanotechnology will facilitate control at the nanometer scale. A nanometer is one billionth of a meter. Basically, it is about the width of 3 to 4 atoms.

One of the striking future cars presented is FCX 2020 Le Mans from Acura. Said car is envisioned to be powered by advanced auto parts from the automaker. It will also be using Honda car accessories to boost its ergonomics and comfort.

Acura FCX 2020 Le Mans appears like a Batmobile. The difference is that it uses lightweight and recyclable materials. Moreover, it is equipped with a hydrogen fuel cell drivetrain that makes it an environment-friendly car. Its molecular nanotechnology made it lighter and more manageable than present day cars.

Another viable future car is Volkswagen Nanospyder. The captivating car is made up billions of spore-like nanobots. The car is inclusive of mouth, eyeballs and other Volkswagen car accessories including tiny logos.

One of the exciting features of this VW Nanospyder is the ability of its lead bots to pick up impending collisions. Aside from that, the information can be sent away to support particular sections of the car.

Analysts in the auto industry are expecting a greener car future because of nanotechnology. In fact, there have been interesting concept cars submitted in the upcoming Los Angeles Auto Show’s Design Challenge. The latter is a competition designed to cover future cars that are environment-friendly. Mechanics of the competition include originality, safety, environmentalism and relevancy to Southern California’s 'green' lifestyle.

Unique research efforts relating to the development of Nanoscale devices to replace standard integrated circuits, and eventually entire electronic systems. Standard integrated circuits (IC) have limitations or restrictions in size, speed, reliability, complexity and finding suitable replacements for discontinued items. Nanoscale device development and understanding has dramatically grown. One of the key properties of quantum physics that quantum computers rely on is the ability of certain atoms or nuclei to work together as quantum bits. These computing devices are a fraction of the size of typical ICs (nanoscale). Nanoscale devices developed using quantum physics principles have unlimited potential to revolutionize the methods and design of fabricated printed circuit cards and complete systems. They can replace an entire PC hoard

or the set of PC boards that comprise a Line Replaceable Unit (LRU). This would be a good and practical

jumping-off point to going directly to the complete device, system, or function level. This might include a nanoscale computer (general purpose or flight control), transmitter, GPS receiver, position andor attitude sensors in either a stand-alone configuration, or combined within conventional devices (e.g., a nanoscale communications suite (xmtdrcvr, etc.) encapsulated within the Plexiglas canopy or the control yoke of an F16 rather than behind the instrument panel or maybe the whole comm suite into the pilot’s helmet.

Ten Times Improvement in Affordable Jet Engine Capability by 2017

GE90 engine is an example of improving engine affordability and with better performance .Phase 2 and 3 of the Versatile Affordable Advanced Turbine (VAATE) program are being funded. The VAATE program is structured in three phases to achieve 4X performance/cost by 2009, 6X performance/cost by 2013 and 10X performance/cost by 2017.

The Adaptive Versatile Engine Technology (ADVENT) program is a 5-year project that aims to produce a revolution in jet engine design. Project ADVENT is an actually the flagship effort under the Versatile, Affordable Advanced Turbine Engines Program, or VAATE.

Emerging Technologies and Role of Nanotechnology

Recent research focus areas in aeronautics include nanotechnology, developmental test and evaluation, network-centric warfare, intelligent systems, and environmental air transport.

Energy Optimized Aircraft and Equipment Systems

Air craft technologies are related to the design and integration of energy consuming Aircraft Equipment Systems (AES). These systems are located under the floor, inside wings and behind panels, essentially ensuring performance, safety, and controllability.

New aircraft configurations advance available components and integration of these systems to introduce possibilities for greater efficiency in terms of the following:

• Environmental control and all aspects of thermal management

• Flight control actuation ice and rain protection

• Landing gear and braking

• Electrical, hydraulic and pneumatic generation and distribution

• Auxiliary and emergency power generation

• Aircraft fuel system

• Engine support

• Lighting, cabin and water/waste

Nanotechnology

Active areas of research in the aeronautic industry include nano-devices and -systems, nanoelectronics, nano-manufacturing, nano-materials, nano-sensors and the environmental, health and safety aspects of nanotechnology. Current research activities include the ability to combine multiple "nano" disciplines to create new, synergistic applications of nanotechnology.

The U.S. National Nanotechnology Initiative as a field in which nanotechnology has the potential to enable a wealth of innovation, particularly in materials/structures and intelligent bio-nanomaterials in aeronautics.

Environmental Air Transport

The Clean Sky Joint Technology Initiative will congregate European R&D stakeholders for the development of green air vehicle design, engines and systems to minimize the environmental impact of future air transport systems.

Technologies will directly aim for the reduction of the amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) emitted by air transport, cutting specific emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx) by 80% and decreasing noise levels. The targets reflect the Ultra Green High Level Target Concepts developed by the Advisory Council for Aeronautical Research in Europe (ACARE). Other focus areas include the reduction of soot, water vapour and particulates emission through alternative fuels; aircraft engine configurations, intelligent low-weight structures, improved aerodynamic efficiency, airport operations and air traffic management as well as manufacturing and recycling processes.